The Making of the modern Middle East

As the ‘cradle of civilisation’ located at the juncture of three continents, the Middle East is home to a wide range of cultures, religions, and ethnicities that make the region so interesting, yet so complex. This survey course will introduce students to the modern Middle East, beginning with the important changes of the Nineteenth Century and continuing through the period of European dominance into the age of independence and the contemporary Middle East. Throughout the course, we will examine various themes, especially the important and recurring force of religion. Some of the topics that we will cover include the Arab-Israeli conflict, the Iranian Revolution, the Persian Gulf Wars, and radicalism, while placing them within the broader framework of the modern Middle East. We will conclude by addressing recent developments in the region and its outlook for the future. [Intermediate-level course]

This course represents a combination of a lecture and seminar approaches and individual participation in class dialogues is critical. Most classes include a discussion period for conversation about required reading. Each student will have the opportunity to present a brief review of a text, after which he/she will lead a discussion. At the end of this course, it is hoped that students will have not only a better understanding of the Middle East, but have developed better research skills, practiced critical thinking and reading, and gained experience collecting and presenting information clearly.

Course grades will be assigned on the basis of several elements:

1. in-class quizzes (15% total)—a map quiz and five 5-minute quizzes (lowest grade dropped) on critical terms (e.g., 1967 War, Rūḥ-Ollāh Khomeynī, Kemal Atatürk);
2. pop reading quizzes (10%)—short, random multiple-choice quizzes on major themes of assigned readings;
3. mid-term paper (20%)—take-home essay on an assigned topic, using only the class readings as sources (5 pages);
4. final research paper (30%)—each student will write a research paper (about 15 pages) on a topic of their choice relating to the course and making use of literature (at least 6 sources) not assigned as part of the class reading;
5. class participation (25%)—contribution to in-class and online discussions and attendance, critical to a successful experience (students with over three absences lose their entire participation grade; each additional two absences result in a letter-grade penalty off of the overall course grade), including also a discussion article presentation, where each student presents at least one required reading, emphasising its core argument and leading a class discussion about it.

This division of factors aims to give all students a fair chance at a good grade by avoiding too much emphasis on one examination method. Nevertheless, since a large share of the grade (25%) derives from participation and the discussion presentation, this means that you must attend and participate in class to get a good grade. The key to good participation is reading the assigned texts, so come prepared!

Each student has the opportunity to submit up to two extra credit response papers to contemporary news articles on current events the Middle East. In order to receive credit, you must read and submit an article from a newspaper listed below, along with your thoughts on the article (one page). Other extra credit opportunities will be announced periodically throughout the semester; students will be allowed a maximum of five total extra credit opportunities during the term. You are also strongly encouraged to follow Middle East news during (and after!) the semester. Some mainstream newspaper sources:

• Yediʿot Aḥaronot (Israel; centre)
• Haaretz (Israel; left)
• Jerusalem Post (Israel; centre-right)
• Israel Hayom (Israel; right)
• Globes (Israel; financial)
• ash-Sharq al-Awsaṭ (London)
• Jordan Times (Jordan)
• al-Ahram Weekly (Egypt)
• Arab Times (Kuwait)
• Khaleej Times (UAE)
• New York Times (US; left)
• Wall Street Journal (US; financial; right)
• Christian Science Monitor (US; centre)

I. Introduction to the modern Middle East

1. Introduction to the Middle East

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 1–52.
• Arthur Goldschmidt, Jr and Aomar Boum, A Concise history of the Middle East, 11^th ed. (Boulder: Westview Press, 2015), 1–11.
• Bernard Lewis, The Multiple identities of the Middle East (New York: Schocken Books, 2001), 9–24.
• Examine the class primer (always review relevant materials and bring the primer to each class).

Recommended reading:

• Cleveland, History, 58–123.
• * Uriel Heyd, ‘The Ottoman ʿulemā and Westernization in the time of Selīm III and Maḥmūd II’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 145–168.
• * Ann K S Lambton, ‘Social change in Persia in the Nineteenth Century’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 145–168.
• Malcolm E Yapp, The Making of the modern Near East, 1792–1923 (London/New York City: Longman, 1987), 1–46.

2. The Destruction of the Ottoman Empire

Map quiz

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 53–55, 139–163.
• Malcolm E Yapp, The Making of the modern Near East, 1792–1923 (London/New York City: Longman, 1987), 301–351.
• Readings from Walter Z Laqueur and Barry M Rubin, eds., The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary history of the Middle East conflict, 7^th revised ed. (New York City: Penguin Books, 2008), 11–16. [Primary source]

Recommended reading:

• * Cleveland, History, 53–55, 124–138.
• * Roger Owen, ‘Egypt and Europe: From French expedition to British occupation’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 111–124.
• * Feroz Ahmad, ‘War and society under the Young Turks, 1908–18’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 111–124.

II. European power and influence in the Middle East

3. Secular and modern reform in Turkey and Iran

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 166–183.
• Ioannis N Grigoriadis and Ali M Ansari, ‘Turkish and Iranian nationalisms’, in A Companion to the history of the Middle East, ed. Youssef M Choueiri (Malden/Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2005), 313–333 (DOI 10.1002/9780470996423.ch17).
• Şerif Arif Mardin, ‘Religion and secularism in Turkey’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 347–374.
• Mohammad H Faghfoory, ‘The Ulama-state relations in Iran: 1921–1941’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 19.4 (November 1987), 413–432 (DOI 10.1017/S002074380005649X).

Recommended reading:

• Homa Katouzian, ‘Nationalist trends in Iran, 1921–1926’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 10.4 (November 1979), 533–551 (DOI 10.1017/S0020743800051321).
• Michael Zirinsky, ‘Imperial power and dictatorship: Britain and the rise of Reza Shah, 1921–1926’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 24.4 (November 1992), 639–663 (DOI 10.1017/S0020743800022388).
• İlker Aytürk, ‘Nationalism and Islam in Cold War Turkey, 1944–69’, Middle Eastern Studies 50.5 (September 2014), 693–719 (DOI 10.1080/00263206.2014.911177).

4. British and French rule in the Mandatory period

Quiz #1

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 184–225, 288–300.
• Peter Sluglett, ‘An Improvement on colonialism? The “A” mandates and their legacy in the Middle East’, International Affairs 90.2 (March 2014), 413–427 (DOI 10.1111/1468-2346.12117).
• Ayşe Tekdal Fildiş, ‘The Troubles in Syria: Spawned by French divide and rule’, Middle East Policy 18.4 (Winter 2011), 129–139 (DOI 10.1111/j.1475-4967.2011.00515.x). [online]
• Efraim Karsh, ‘Reactive imperialism: Britain, the Hashemites, and the creation of modern Iraq’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 30.3 (September 2002), 55–70 (DOI 10.1080/03086530208583149).

Recommended reading:

• Hanna Batatu, ‘Of the diversity of Iraqis, the incohesiveness of their society, and their progress in the monarchic period toward a consolidated political structure’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 503–525.
• John Darwin, ‘An Undeclared empire: The British in the Middle East, 1918–39’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 27.2 (1999), 159–176 (DOI 10.1080/03086539908583062).
• Reeva Spector Simon, ‘The Imposition of nationalism on a non-nation state: The Case of Iraq during the interwar period, 1921–1941’, in Rethinking nationalism in the Arab Middle East, ed. James P Jankowski and Israel Gershoni (New York City: Columbia University Press, 1997), 87–104.
• Gitta Yaffe-Schatzmann, ‘Alawi separatists and unionists: The Events of 25 February 1936’, Middle Eastern Studies 31.1 (January 1995), 28–38 (DOI 10.1080/00263209508701039).

5. Palestine from British Mandate to State of Israel

Quiz #1

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 226–256.
• Avraham Sela, ‘The “Wailing Wall” riots (1929) as a watershed in the Palestine conflict’, The Muslim World 84.1–2 (January–April 1994), 60–94 (DOI 10.1111/j.1478-1913.1994.tb03589.x).
• Taysir Nashif, ‘Palestinian Arab and Jewish leadership in the Mandate period’, Journal of Palestine Studies 6.4 (Summer 1977), 113–121.
• Avi Shlaim, ‘Israel and the Arab coalition in 1948’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 79–103.

Recommended reading:

• Mordechai Bar-On, ‘Remembering 1948: Personal recollections, collective memory, and the search for “what really happened”’, in Making Israel, ed. Benny Morris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2007), 29–46.
• Avi Shlaim, ‘The Debate about 1948’, in Making Israel, ed. Benny Morris (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2007), 124–146.
• Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian refugee problem revisited, 2^nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 588–601.
• Amitzur Ilan, ‘Withdrawal without recommendations: Britain’s decision to relinquish the Palestine Mandate, 1947’, in Zionism and Arabism in Palestine and Israel, ed. Elie Kedourie and Sylvia G Haim (London/Totowa, New Jersey: Frank Cass, 1982), 183–209.
• Rashid I Khalidi, ‘The Palestinians and 1948: The Underlying causes of failure’, in The War for Palestine: Rewriting the history of 1948, ed. Eugene L Rogan and Avi Shlaim (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 12–36.
• Ted Swedenburg, ‘The Role of the Palestinian peasantry in the Great Revolt (1936–1939)’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 467–502.

III. Independence and the age of nationalism

6. Arab nationalism in Egypt and the Arab world

Quiz #2

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 286–327.
• Youssef M Choueiri, ‘Nationalisms in the Middle East: The Case of pan-Arabism’, in A Companion to the history of the Middle East, ed. Youssef M Choueiri (Malden/Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2005), 291–312 (DOI 10.1002/9780470996423.ch16).
• Adeed I Dawisha, Arab nationalism in the Twentieth Century: From Triumph to despair (Princeton/Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2003), 160–185.
• Monte Palmer, ‘The United Arab Republic: An Assessment of its failure’, Middle East Journal 20.1 (Winter 1966), 50–67.

Recommended reading:

• * James P Jankowski, ‘Arab nationalism in “Nasserism” and Egyptian state policy, 1952–1958’, in Rethinking nationalism in the Arab Middle East, ed. James P Jankowski and Israel Gershoni (New York City: Columbia University Press, 1997), 150–167.
• C Ernest Dawn, ‘From Ottomanism to Arabism: The Origin of an ideology’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 375–393.
• Reeva Spector Simon, ‘The Hashemite “conspiracy”: Hashemite unity attempts, 1921–1958’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 5.3 (June 1974), 314–327 (DOI 10.1017/S0020743800034966).

7. The 1967 War and the decline of pan-Arabism

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 328–349, 378–385.
• Fouad Ajami, ‘The End of pan-Arabism’, Foreign Affairs 57.2 (Winter 1978–1979): 355–373.
• Stephen Humphreys, ‘The Strange career of pan-Arabism’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 577–596.
• Moshe Shemesh, Arab politics, Palestinian nationalism, and the Six Day War: The Crystallization of Arab strategy and Nasir’s descent to war, 1957–1967 (Brighton/Portland: Sussex Academic Press, 2008), 249–264.

Recommended reading:

• * Elie Kedourie, ‘Religion and nationalism in the Arab world’, in Islam in the modern world and other studies (London: Mansell Publishing, 1980), 53–66.
• Michael B Oren, ‘The Revelations of 1967: New research on the Six Day War and its lessons for the contemporary Middle East’, Israel Studies 10.2 (Summer 2005), 1–14.

8. Iraq and Syria under Baʿth authoritarianism

Mid-term due

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 423–446.
• John F Devlin, ‘The Baath Party: Rise and metamorphosis’, American Historical Review 96.5 (December 1991), 1396–1407 (DOI 10.1086/ahr/96.5.1396).
• Kanan Makiya, ‘Dark truth in Saddam’s Iraq’, Dissent 45.3 (Summer 1998), 52–60.
• D Gershon Lewental, ‘“Saddam’s Qadisiyyah”: Religion and history in the service of state ideology in Baʿthi Iraq’, Middle Eastern Studies 50.6 (November 2014), 891–910 (DOI 10.1080/00263206.2013.870899).
• Steven Heydemann, ‘Syria and the future of authoritarianism’, Journal of Democracy 24.4 (October 2013), 59–73 (DOI 10.1353/jod.2013.0067). [online]

Recommended reading:

• Hanna Batatu, ‘Some observations on the social roots of Syria’s ruling, military group and the causes for its dominance’, Middle East Journal 35.3 (Summer 1981), 331–344.
• Marion Farouk-Sluglett and Peter Sluglett, ‘From gang to elite: The Iraqi Baʿth Party’s consolidation of power, 1968–1975’, Peuples méditerranéens 40 (July–September 1987), 89–114.
• Ofra Bengio, ‘Baʿthi Iraq in search of an identity: Between ideology and praxis’, Orient 28.4 (1987), 511–518.
• Adeed I Dawisha, ‘“Identity” and political survival in Saddam’s Iraq’, Middle East Journal 53.4 (Autumn 1999), 553–567.
• Isam al-Khafaji, ‘State terror and the degradation of politics in Iraq’, Middle East Report 176 (May–June 1992), 15–21 (DOI 10.2307/3012606). [online]

9. Religion, the state, and the army in Turkey and Iran

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 261–285.
• Hamid Algar, ‘The Oppositional role of the ulama in Twentieth-Century Iran’, in Scholars, saints, and sufis: Muslim religious institutions in the Middle East since 1500, ed. Nikki Ragozin Keddie (Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: University of California Press, 1972), 231–255.
• Homa Katouzian, ‘Mosaddeq’s government in Iranian history: Arbitrary rule, democracy and the 1953 coup’. in Mohammad Mosaddeq and the 1953 coup in Iran, ed. Mark J Gasiorowski, and Malcolm Byrne (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 2004), 1–26.
• Ümit Cizre Sakallioğlu, ‘The Military and politics: A Turkish dilemma’, in Armed forces in the Middle East: Politics and strategy, ed. Barry M Rubin and Thomas A Keaney (London/Portland: Frank Cass, 2002), 189–205.

Recommended reading:

• Brad Hanson, ‘The “Westoxication” of Iran: Depictions and reactions of Behrangi, Āl-e Ahmad, and Shariʿati’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 15.1 (February 1983), 1–23 (DOI 10.1017/S0020743800052387).
• Mark J Gasiorowski, ‘The 1953 coup d’etat in Iran’, International Journal of Middle East Studies 19.3 (August 1987), 261–286.
• Ümit Cizre Sakallioğlu, ‘The Anatomy of the Turkish military’s political autonomy’, Comparative Politics 29.2 (January 1997), 151–166 (DOI 10.2307/422077).

IV. The Resurgence of Islam

10. The Iranian Revolution and the resurgence of Islam

Quiz #3

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 355–377.
• Nikki Ragozin Keddie, ‘Iranian revolutions in comparative perspective’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 615–637.
• Mangol Bayat, ‘The Iranian Revolution of 1978–79: Fundamentalist or modern?’, Middle East Journal 37.1 (Winter 1983), 30–42.
• David Menashri, ‘Iran’s revolutionary politics: Nationalism and Islamic identity’, in Ethnic conflict and international politics in the Middle East, ed. Leonard Binder (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1999), 131–154.

Recommended reading:

• Guity Nashat, ‘Women in the ideology of the Islamic Republic’, in Women and revolution in Iran, ed. Guity Nashat (Boulder: Westview Press, 1983), 195–216.
• Adele K Ferdows, ‘Shariati and Khomeini on women’, in The Iranian Revolution & the Islamic Republic, ed. Nikki Ragozin Keddie and Eric James Hooglund, new ed. (Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1986), 127–143.
• Mehrdad Haghayeghi, ‘Politics and ideology in the Islamic Republic of Iran’, Middle Eastern Studies 29.1 (January 1993), 36–52 (DOI 10.1080/00263209308700933).

11. War and protest in the 1980s: Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Palestinians

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 385–401, 451–473.
• Yusri Hazran, ‘The Rise of politicized Shiʿite religiosity and the territorial state in Iraq and Lebanon’, Middle East Journal 64.4 (Autumn 2011), 521–541 (DOI 10.3751/64.4.11).
• Kenneth W Stein, ‘The Intifada and the 1936–39 uprising: A Comparison’, Journal of Palestine Studies 19.4 (Summer 1990), 64–82.
• Thomas Friedman, From Beirut to Jerusalem: Updated with a new chapter (New York: Anchor Books, 1995), 76–105.

Recommended reading:

• * Meir Zamir, ‘From Hegemony to marginalism: The Maronites of Lebanon’, in Minorities and the state in the Arab world, ed. Ofra Bengio and Gabriel Ben-Dor (Boulder/London: Lynne Rienner, 1999), 111–128.
• Faten Ghosn and Amal Khoury, ‘Lebanon after the Civil War: Peace or the illusion of peace?’. Middle East Journal 65.3 (Summer 2011), 381–397 (DOI 10.3751/65.3.12).
• Amikam Nachmani, ‘The Palestinian Intifada 1987–1993: The Dynamics of symbols and symbolic realities, the role of symbols, rituals and myths in national struggles’, Civil Wars 4.1 (2001), 49–103 (DOI 10.1080/13698240108402463).

12. Israel and the Palestinians since the Oslo Accords

Quiz #4

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 474–498.
• Emanuele Ottolenghi, ‘Why Palestinians and Israelis are not ready for peace’, Survival 46.1 (Spring 2004), 41–54 (DOI 10.1080/00396330412331343653).
• Ronald R Krebs, ‘Israel’s bunker mentality: How the occupation is destroying the nation’, Foreign Affairs 90.6 (November–December 2011), 10–18.
• Yosef Kuperwasser and Shalom Lipner, ‘The Problem is Palestinian rejectionism: Why the PA must recognize a Jewish state’, Foreign Affairs 90.6 (November–December 2011), 2–9.
• Mohammed S Dajani Daoudi and Zeina M Barakat, ‘Israelis and Palestinians: Contested narratives’, Israel Studies 18.2 (Summer 2013), 53–69.
• Ehud Yaʾari, ‘Armistice now: An Interim agreement for Israel and Palestine’, Foreign Affairs 89.2 (March–April 2010), 50–62.

Recommended reading:

• Shlomo Ben-Ami, ‘So close and yet so far: Lessons from the Israeli-Palestinian peace process’, Israel Studies 10.2 (Summer 2005), 72–90. [Primary source]
• Hussein Sirriyeh, ‘Is there a Palestinian civil war? The Concept and the impact’, Israel Affairs 17.2 (April 2011), 247–258 (DOI 10.1080/13537121.2011.547277).
• Tamar Hermann, ‘Zionism and Palestinian nationalism: Possibilities of recognition’, Israel Studies 18.2 (Summer 2013), 133–147.
• Ilan Peleg and Paul Scham, ‘Historical breakthroughs in Arab-Israeli negotiations: Lessons for the future’, Middle East Journal 64.2 (Spring 2010), 215–233 (DOI 10.1353/mej.0.0136).

13. Political & radical Islam: From Muslim Brethren to ISIS

Required reading:

• Lawrence Davidson, Islamic fundamentalism: An Introduction, 3^rd ed. (Santa Barbara/Denver/Oxford: Praeger, 2013), 1–15.
• Frederick M Denny, An Introduction to Islam, 4^th ed. (Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 2011), 341–347.
• Beverly Milton-Edwards, ‘Politics and religion’, in A Companion to the history of the Middle East, ed. Youssef M Choueiri (Malden/Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2005), 444–461 (DOI 10.1002/9780470996423.ch24.
• D Gershon Lewental, ‘“First”, “second”, and “third” battles of al-Qādisiyyah in Iraq, Palestine, and Syria: Early Islamic history and memory in radical Islamist discourse’, (forthcoming), 1–20.
• Readings in Barry M Rubin and Judith Rubin, eds., Anti-American terrorism and the Middle East: A Documentary reader (New York City/Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 27–28, 29–32. [Primary source]
• Michael Scott Doran, ‘Somebody else’s civil war’, Foreign Affairs 81.1 (January–February 2002), 22–42.

Recommended reading:

• * Beverly Milton-Edwards, ‘The Ascendance of political Islam: Hamas and consolidation in the Gaza Strip’, Third World Quarterly 29.8 (December 2008), 1585–1599 (DOI 10.1080/01436590802528739).
• Barak Mendelsohn, ‘al-Qaeda’s franchising strategy’, Survival 53.3 (June–July 2011), 29–50 (DOI 10.1080/00396338.2011.586187).
• John Turner, ‘Strategic differences: al Qaeda’s split with the Islamic State of Iraq and al-Sham’. Small Wars & Insurgencies 26.2 (2015), 208–225 (DOI 10.1080/09592318.2015.1007563).

14. Challenges to political ideology in Turkey and Iran

Quiz #4

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 499–518.
• Banu Eligür, ‘Turkey’s declining democracy’, Current Trends in Islamist Ideology 17 (August 2014), 151–175.
• Birol Başkan, ‘Making sense of Turkey’s foreign policy: Clashing identities and interests’, The Muslim World 106.1 (January 2016), 141–154 (DOI 10.1111/muwo.12129).
• Burak Bekdil, ‘Erdoğan’s one-man Islamist show’, Middle East Quarterly 23.2 (Spring 2016), 1–8.
• Olivier Roy, ‘The Crisis of religious legitimacy in Iran’, in Hourani, Khoury, and Wilson, eds., Modern Middle East, 639–655.
• Yousra Y Fazili, ‘Between mullahs’ robes and absolutism: Conservatism in Iran’, SAIS Review of International Affairs 30.1 (Winter–Spring 2010), 39–55 (DOI 10.1353/sais.0.0066).

Recommended reading:

• * Ömer Taşpınar, ‘The End of the Turkish model’, Survival 56.2 (April–May 2014), 49–64 (DOI 10.1080/00396338.2014.901732).
• * Jahangir Amuzegar, ‘Iran’s theocracy under siege’, Middle East Policy 10.1 (Spring 2003), 135–153.
• Maziar Behrooz, ‘The Islamic state and the crisis of marjaʿiyat in Iran’, Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 16.2 (Fall 1996), 93–100 (DOI 10.1215/1089201X-16-2-93).
• Abbas William Samii, ‘Drug abuse: Iran’s “thorniest problem’’, Brown Journal of World Affairs 9.2 (Winter–Spring 2003), 283–299.

15. New and future challenges in the Middle East

Required reading:

• Cleveland, History, 519–556.
• Simon Bromley, ‘The States-system in the Middle East: Origins, development, and prospects’, in A Companion to the history of the Middle East, ed. Youssef M Choueiri (Malden/Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2005), 504–532 (DOI 10.1002/9780470996423.ch27).
• Marc Sageman, ‘The Next generation of terror’, Foreign Policy 165 (March–April 2008), 36–42. [online]
• TBA

Recommended reading:

• Joseph Bahout, ‘Lebanon at the brink: The Impact of the Syrian Civil War’, Middle East Brief 76 (January 2014), 1–7.
• Jarret M Brachman, ‘High-tech terror: al-Qaeda’s use of new technology’, Fletcher Forum of World Affairs 30.2 (Summer 2006), 149–164.

Final research paper due at end of term.